HBS Case Innovation and Collaboration at Merrill Lynch Essay

In a rapidly changing world, organizations need to continually identify new opportunities beyond existing competencies if they are to survive and prosper. Customers also increasingly want customized products. Customer service has become a hygiene factor and customer loyalty is now being driven by faster innovation, rapid concept-to-market and product co-creation. This has led to the extension of the collaboration paradigm to customer facing functions in the supply chain, namely the product design and prototyping phase. Collaboration is becoming a new and important source of competitive advantage. Historically, analysts in the investment bank tended to work independently. Especially, in the beginning of 1990s, the globalization overwhelmed the market and investor became to think that they should not just invest in the local market, but invest in the international market. With this change of clients’ attitude, the investment bank became to feel the need of innovation of their working style. Under these situations, Merrill Lynch decided to create totally different style of research report, the capital structure report which was only possible with the collaboration of international-market, cross-sector, and cross-asset analysts. The First Capital-Structure report about the U.S. Cable Industry covered seven companies. It was the first try of collaborative work in Merrill Lynch, so it didn’t have any clear guide lines for the effective team work. There was no clear goal of team work, and also there was no motivation for the participant. Analysts from different sections were asked to get together one day, and asked to make a capital structure report. Without any clear goal, and without the structure and system of team work, the whole procedure proceeded very inefficiently. It took lots of time to get the final report, but the quality of report was not satisfied. In other words, its try to change was innovative, but the team work itself was not so much â€Å"value-addable†. The second Capital-Structure report about U.S. Utilities covered 5 companies. This time, it seemed like there were clear goals; â€Å"The idea from get-go was that people would be able to pick up this thing and start generating trades  from it. That was goal number one. The second goal was to have the report sitting on people’s desks for a good period of time as a reference guide to how different parts of the capital structure impacted each other and affected valuations and potential opportunities† In addition, the participants in this project worked pretty closely together already. However, these were not enough for the effective collaboration. They were still not motivated to the project a lot, and the more commitment might have been called for. This means that they still didn’t have specific goal to head for. Absence of specific goal naturally brought lots of debates which slow the progress. When the team finished the project, the report got a lot of positive feedback from clients. And it seems that Merrill Lynch met its goal in the beginning. However, without the specific goal of what they should achieve, and with the lots of information they should mix all together, â€Å"it was a grinding exercise† to reach on the final result. The Third Capital-Structure Report was about auto companies. At this time U.S. specialists and Europe specialists worked together. Analysts did not need much convincing because they already knew the need for this collaborative work. There were lots of energy and enthusiasm already. In addition, this third project started with a plan; they knew what they want to achieve specifically and they also had the clear deadline. The whole procedure was progressed very smoothly from this step to the next. As a result, Sales heard from a client that â€Å"the value-added ideas contained in the report are original, differentiate Merrill from the rest of the Street, and give them another reason to pay Merrill commissions.† Even though Merrill Lynch learned lots of things undergoing the upper three cases, there still are many issues remained. The project might have been more timely and had a clear leader. To achieve the further successful innovation and collaboration, there are many important things Browning as the director of the research department should have thought about. As a leader for change, Browning should set the theme by communicating inspiring visions, which provide a picture of the future combining poetry and prose, imagination and pragmatism, drawing on destination, dream, prize,  target, message, and first step. So, first, as a leader Browing must be secure about team’s charter, mission, goals and objectives to team members. And employees must believe a certain level of individual effort will lead to achieving the corporation’s standards of performance. So Browing should set stretch goals which they energize people. And Browing must confront the key questions that must be answered and then communicate the inherent truth that inspires. The communication of that inspiring vision is arguably the indispensable condition. So For this, he should launch internal website for his innovative project and this website will help team members expedite project’s vision communication as well as timely information access. To be specific, formally, the analysts can share information about each sector regularly through email, e-news letter, and regular cross-sector meeting. For example, the equity analyst can have the summary about current bond market or derivative market weekly or biweekly. Also, through inner-information session for cross-asset collaboration report the analyst could have a chance of analyzing pros and cons of the collaboration report. Second, for effective communication, Browning has to build the trust and respect in the innovative project team. Informally, just as Fleishman insisted, through casual lunch or regular dinner, cross-asset analysts could be close to each other, and all-of-sudden they could be collaborating. And this interaction would encourage meaningful dialogue around issues of compelling importance to analysts. To develop solid foundation and mutual trust, face-to-face interaction is needed. In addition, just as Hezig recommended, having new hires rotate for a period of time before getting allocated to do research might be a useful tool for effective communication. New employees not only could be comfortable with cross-asset resources, but also could have close relationships with cross-asset colleagues. Third, Browing has to build the culture which voluntarily stimulates voluntary collaboration. So he has to pay attention to structure a collaborative innovation team which can add flexibility to planning and control systems. Without flexibility, analysts can stop their creative and productive ideas. So Browing need to consider this flexibility in a long term goal. Creative collaboration respects and honors the talents and  contributions of each person involved, regardless of rank, seniority or expertise. Organizations that are serious about collaboration make sure there is a safe environment for taking the risks that are necessary for creative collaboration. Fourth, Browing should create atmosphere where stimulates breakthrough ideas. It means that he should create norms to promote creativity. Collaborative Innovation is a new practice that improves on current practice or responds to new opportunities and challenges. Actually, many organizations are trying to build their own culture for innovation. Thus Browing needs to focus on risk taking for change. Risk taking is ‘no punishments for failure’ and ‘freedom to try things and fail’. For example, laughing at those who suggest new approaches can stop sharing information each other. Another norm to promote creativity is openness. Openness includes open communication and help share information, open access, willingness to consult others. Browing should be careful of knowledge evaporation. He should build up internal knowledge database as an instrument at the corporate level for collecting ideas and then promoting them. And also he has to give all the relevant employees to access the database. As a result, employees who are interested in any relevant subject can give negative or positive feedback and the subject can develop in a better way. Innovation is a process, not just an output. Time out is as important as time in. If we have a problem, our brains continue to search for the solution even while we are doing other things. Fifth, Browing should celebrate accomplishment making everyone hero. Celebrating accomplishments provides support for staff undergoing change. Just as Casea said, Browining has to convince analysts that collaborative project is additive to their franchise, that it’s not just an extracurricular activity. Financial rewards do encourage people to produce results. But the kind of ownership that really generates energy is not financial. It is emotional. Employees must feel that the rewards offered are attractive. Providing adequate pay, at the same time he could compliment the effort and result whenever he encounters. This will impart a motivating  sense of personal accomplishment and little by little will build commitment to the collaboration. A solid performance management system requires due respect to both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. So Browing should be skilled at communicating instrumental and expressive messages concurrently. The last suggestion for Browning is to decide or delegate the suitable leader and make him control the team under strong leadership. Just as Casesa indicated, non-hierarchical relationships across divisions among analysts complicated the task since there was also no actual leader when analysts made the third capital-structure report. To maintain this innovation, Browning also has to consider human side of innovation, because even the most technical of innovations requires strong leaders with great relationship and communication skills. The good leader might pull human resource to the collaboration when needed. Just as Haggerty brought an editor in meeting to help them structure the report, the environment which makes analysts easy to collaborate would also promote the positive image of collaboration. Under good and respectful leader, the future collaboration would create more successful capital-structure report. BIBLIOGRAPHY AMBLER, S. (1995) â€Å"USING USE CASES: REDUCE DEVELOPMENT COSTS WITH USE-CASE SCENARIO TESTING,† SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT, 3 (6), JULY. BILOW, S. C. (1995) â€Å"DEFINING AND DEVELOPING USER INTERFACE INTENSIVE APPLICATIONS WITH USE CASES,† REPORT ON OBJECT ANALYSIS AND DESIGN. 1 (5): 28-34. INNOVATION THE CLASSIC TRAPS ,SKILLS LESSONS THE NOT-SO-SECRET INGREDIENT OF HIGH PERFORMANCE, BE A GOOD BOSS LEADERSHIP FOR CHANGE: ENDURING SKILLS FOR CHANGES MATERS, WRITER:ROSABETH MOSS KANTER THE NOT-SO-SECRET INGREDIENT OF HIGH PERFORMANCE, INTRINSIC REWARDS GENERALLY MOTIVATE BEST CORPORATION, CULTURE, AND COMMITMENT: MOTIVATION AND SOCIAL CONTROL IN ORGANIZATIONS, WRITER:CHARLES O’REILLY INNOVATION, WRITER:ROSABETH MOSS KANTER BUILDING AN EFFECTIVE GLOBAL BUSINESS TEAM, CULTIVATING A CULTURE OF TRUST Title :Leadership for Change: Enduring Skills for Changes Maters, Writer:ROSABETH MOSS KANTER, Page:4   See Building an Effective Global Business Team, Cultivating a Culture of Trust, page 69   Title:Innovation, Writer:Rosabeth Moss Kanter, Page:10   Title :Leadership for Change: Enduring Skills for Changes Maters, Writer: ROSABETH MOSS KANTER, Page:3 Title:Corporation, Culture, and Commitment: Motivation and Social Control in Organizations, Page:15, Writer:Charles O’Reilly   Title:Corporation, Culture, and Commitment: Motivation and Social Control in Organizations, Page:15, Writer:Charles O’Reilly   Title :Leadership for Change: Enduring Skills for Changes Maters, Writer:ROSABETH MOSS KANTER, Page:14   See Motivation: The Not-So-Secret Ingredient of High Performance, Intrinsic Rewards Generally Motivate Best, page 5-7   See Innovation The Classic Traps ,Skills Lessons, page 4   See Motivation: The Not-So-Secret Ingredient of High Performance, Be a Good Boss, page 17-18

Bildungsroman in Huckleberry Finn

According to Merriam-Webster, a bildungsroman is â€Å"a novel about the moral and psychological growth of the main character. † Huckleberry Finn is an ideal example for this type of character. Just from his simple changing perception of slaves, especially Jim considering that he lives in such a racist and restrictive society. Huckleberry Finn is an illustration of a bildungsroman because he overcomes many stereotypes and preconceived notions about slaves and blacks. His changing and growing personality is displayed throughout the novel and shapes the theme of tolerance that is shown. Huckleberry Finn’s view of Jim at the beginning of the novel is very typical of what any perception would be of a slave during this time period. He thinks of Jim just as Miss Watson’s slave; not a person and definitely not a friend. However, when he and Jim find each other and go out to the island, this is when Huck begins to see Jim as a person, not just a slave. This was a major step because Huck grew up with the notion that slaves were less than him, and he reversed that stereotype within his mind. When he must make the decision whether to reveal the whereabouts of Jim, Huck states, â€Å"It was a close place. I took . . . up [the letter I'd written to Miss Watson], and held it in my hand. I was a-trembling, because I'd got to decide, forever, betwixt two things, and I knowed it. I studied a minute, sort of holding my breath, and then says to myself: â€Å"All right then, I'll go to hell†Ã¢â‚¬â€and tore it up. It was awful thoughts and awful words, but they was said. And I let them stay said; and never thought no more about reforming. He could have done what he was supposed to and make Jim return to Miss Watson, but instead he goes against what is considered ‘right’ in his society, and does what is right, which is a massive step and this displays how Huckleberry Finn is a bildungsroman. At the beginning of the novel, Tom Sawyer convinces Huck that in order to become one of the ‘robbers gang,’ he must also become â€Å"sivilized† by the Widow. Huck goes along with this situation for some time, until he decides that just because Tom and the Widow want him to, doesn’t mean this is right for him. He goes against the grain of society and leaves, which was quite a bold move for a young boy to make. This is not only an example of bildungsroman, but also is a loss of innocence. Throughout the novel, Huck is constantly exposed to concepts and decisions way past what he should be able to handle. At the end of the novel, Aunt Sally makes an attempt to â€Å"sivilize† him, which Huck rejects after the attempts that the Widow and Miss Watson made. He says, â€Å"I reckon I got to light out for the Territory ahead of the rest, because Aunt Sally she’s going to adopt me and sivilize me, and I can’t stand it. I been there before. He instead decides to keep exploring, but instead go west. Huck defies everything that he knows about society of the time and does what he thinks is right for him, which is monumental for not only a young boy, but any person in general. Bildungsroman is one of the key aspects of Huckleberry Finn and it drives the novel as well as the charac ter. Huck Finn develops and matures throughout the novel in his perception of Jim and his decision to go against the grain of society in the Southern 1830s and 1840s. Huck Finn is an exemplary piece of literature to display bildungsroman and its impact on a story and its characters.

Pepsi or Coke From Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Pepsi or Coke From - Research Paper Example The current ratio for Pepsi is 1.09. Current ratio measures the ability of the firm to pay its current liability using the current asset. Current asset is the most liquid form of asset that a firm can easily turn into cash. Current liabilities are short term payable in a period less than a year for example short term loan. From the ratios, Coca-Cola has a lower current ratio compared to Pepsi. The lower current ratio for coca-cola is an indication that the firm is not doing well in its current liability management compared to Pepsi. When the current ratio is low, it means Coca-Cola may not be able to meet its current liability obligation using the current asset. As a result, Coca-Cola may resolve to use other sources of financing to cover its current liabilities. Lower current ratio is an indication of inefficiency in managing assets of the firm. On the other hand, Pepsi has a higher current ratio than coca cola. A comparison of the two reveals that Pepsi is doing better than her rival coca-cola in managing its current ratio. A higher current ratio is an indication that Pepsi can meet its current liabilities more comfortably using its current asset. The current creditors can be more confident with on their payment. The creditors are assured of timely payment due to enough current assets to meet the firm’s current obligation. Also, in case of dissolution, current asset can be used to pay current debtors with more ease. Further, a high current ratio increases the credit worthiness of the firm and in this case Pepsi has higher credit worthiness than coca-cola. This is attributed to the firms not having most of its assets tied in fixed asset thus quicker to liquidate the current asset to meet current obligation. The profitability ratios calculated in the appendix are the return on asset and return on equity. Return on asset is the ratio of net income to average total asset. It measures how much revenue is earned from application of the

Space Age Furniture Company Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Space Age Furniture Company - Assignment Example According to the paper the company incurs a cost of $0.75 per unit per week to hold stock for any subassemblies in stock from one week to another. Hence Space Age Company will incur a total cost of $975 for the six weeks in relation to holding cost. It is clear that due to the high number of subassemblies being produced, there is a demand for part 3079 to be produced in high numbers since it is used to make the subassemblies. However, this can lead to the company incurring overtime costs in order to meet the demand for sub assembles produced in lot sizes of 1000 units. This paper recommends that the lot size of producing the subassemblies should be reduced in order to avoid too much demand for part 3079. This is because it can lead to overtime costs, which in turn can lead to the loss of competent staff. This can be done by reducing the lot size to say 800 units and analysing its effects through Material Requirements Planning. If reducing that number still does not yield better resul ts, the company can consider reducing the number further up to a point where they can sustain the demand for part 3079 that is used to make the subassemblies for the final products. Alternatively, since the machine that makes part 3079 can make as much units as possible, the company can consider employing more staff who can make the part in order to meet the demand for the subassemblies required. This will eliminate overtime costs, stock out costs and motivate the staff who will work the regular 40 hours per week. According to Hanna & Newman, for a company to come up with the best course of action, a cost-benefit analysis must be done in order to choose the one that minimises costs and maximises benefits. In this case, the two recommendations will be analysed. A trade-off is a situation where one gains something at the expense of losing something. That is when one item increases, the other

Assignment #1 Making a Decision Using the Decision - Making Model Essay

Assignment #1 Making a Decision Using the Decision - Making Model - Essay Example I decided to go back to school to gain skills that would propel me further in my career. I saw graduate school as a beckoning opportunity through which I would be able to specialize in areas of my own choosing that improve my job performance and perhaps, result in promotions at the workplace. I enrolled for twelve units during the summer without considering the toll that these classes would have on my time, work and social life. The number of units I am taking this semester requires me to delegate most of my time to studies. I want to get good grades at the end of the semester, which means that I have to find time within my busy schedule to go through my class work. To do this, I have to utilize every free minute that I have to my books. All the time I get goes to my school work, and I have often found myself depressed and procrastinating whether my decision to take the masters program at this time was the right one. My school work has completely taken over my life. Currently, my life rotates around school and work. I no longer have the time to interact or socialize with my friends. Although I interact with a few of the friends I made in my class, we do not get the time to socialize outside the school compound. When we meet at the university, we interact for a few minutes before heading our separate ways. Being the social person that I am, I am always left feeling lonely. Lack of a primary component in my life makes it rather difficult to make up for my previously vibrant social life. As a result of this, I am often depressed as I do not have any friends to share my problems with. My personality as a lifelong learner is what drove me back to school. I have an insatiable desire to gain knowledge and challenge my academic abilities. Since I was young, I considered by unquenchable thirst for books to be a pursuit towards developing my mind. In

Brown vs board of Education Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Brown vs board of Education - Research Paper Example As such, the paper seeks to critically discuss the impact of racial segregation especially on students in public schools. The case of Brown v. Board of Education (1954, 1955) marked a major victory for blacks in the US who were major victims of racial segregation in schools. Though the Supreme Court judges in this particular case were deeply divided over the case, they realized that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. in delivering the judgement in this case, they stated that, "We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of ‘separate but equal’ has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. . ." (USCourts, n.d). Indeed, this judgement in the case of Brown v. Board of Education (1954, 1955) is plausible since it is a victory to those people who are segregated on the basis of their race. Racial segregation has negative impacts especially on the victims particularly the people belonging to an â€Å"inferior race.† Racial segregation is dehumanising since the segregated groups are relegated to lower levels of society and they are often treated as inferior. Under law, this practice should not be permitted since it impacts negatively on other people who may be deprived the opportunity to live happier lives through their hard work. People who are looked down upon often view themselves as inferior and they are not capable of doing anything meaningful that can improve their welfare. They also end up failing to get opportunities to pursue courses and careers that can improve their welfare. The aspect of racial segregation is inhumane since it is believed that all people are created equal by God. According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), human beings are born with inalienable rights and these should not be violated by other people. Article 7 of the UDHR (1948) states that, â€Å"All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal

Bullies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Bullies - Essay Example However, bullying has not been constrained to the learning environment since the problem has also spread to workplaces and cyber bullying. This essay will cover the causes and possible solutions of bullying in details. The causes of bullying vary depending on the age, environment, and the background upbringing of an individual. This implies that the reasons that would influence one to be a bully in the workplace differ from the reasons that influence bullying at school. However, the most cited reason for bullying is personal inadequacy (Booth, Robson & Welham, 2004). In order to fight the inner feeling of emptiness, a bully usually harasses people of weak physical nature in order to achieve high self-esteem. Since the causes of bullying differ depending on the environment, the essay will examine the sources of bullying both in school and at the workplace, separately. Since students are raised in different backgrounds, psychologists have stated that the family background of a child can influence his/her character in their lifetime (Booth, Robson & Welham, 2004). The environment in which a child is brought up will affect how he/she relates with others as well as himself/herself. The best performing students in academics are usually brought up in stable religious families. Therefore, the parent-child relationship influences the child’s personality. Strained parental relationship has been identified as one of the main causes of bullying (Hurley, 2012). Most bullies lack a warm, affectionate, and caring bondage with their parents. Most of these parents subject their children to high academic expectations, which exert pressure on the students. In order to cope up with the pressure, the students turn to weak students and bully them. Moreover, children whose parents are illiterate, or drug addicts are more likely to become bullies due

Why some students cheats Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Why some students cheats - Essay Example Similarly, students who cheat on academic work do so because they feel the pressures of such an environment, and, lacking the means to pass the grade by their own skills and knowledge alone, they depend upon an unfair advantage to help them. Because of this, the rationale behind cheating is deeply embedded in human and animal nature, and the operations of the education system. The education system does not exist to â€Å"enlighten† its students. Ideally, however, it does offer students what they will need in life, and the opportunity to seek those goals. Post-secondary education institutions market their product instead by stressing class differences and distinctions between those who have a degree and those who do not. The requirements of a typical University often make personal success contingent upon one’s ability to conform to the expectations and needs of the department. It is the expectations of the college department which move students to try their hand at cheating. They do so in an effort to avoid falling behind and potentially losing their chance to move further into the course of study they found themselves on. This fear is based on economics and personal expectations (those of the student, his parents, and faculty). Ubiquitous access to the internet is often cited as the cause of a large volume of academic dishonesty. But although the internet is a necessary cause, it is not sufficient. While the internet has made cheating a more efficient process for students, it has not made irrelevant the more fundamental reasons for students to decide to cheat. The root cause of most cheating is, as I have already identified, unrealistic expectations on the part of parents, teachers, and faculty. These individuals provide the selection pressures on the cheater and make it such that if he or she does not cheat, he or she will be selected against and not allowed to move on. This cheating is seen as â€Å"natural† precisely because it is: all

E-commerce Data Privacy & Security Literature review

E-commerce Data Privacy and Security - Literature review Example In 2001 most popular commercial website, collecting data from the customers, have clearly mentioned privacy policy statements on their websites (Schuele 2005). Moreover, some websites out of these most popular commercial sites have not published a complete privacy policy (Schuele 2005). 1.2 Emphasizing on Privacy One more study shows that online companies emphasize and focus more on online privacy policy rather than any other aspect. Even online security is considered as the second option. Moreover, the study also concluded that online customers are more worried about their privacy rather than online threats, as they are considered to be in control. In addition, the study also demonstrated a comparison between the two decades i.e. 1999-2001 and 2005-2007 which highlighted the factors that are mentioned previously (Parayitam, Desai et al. 2008). 1.3 Focusing on Customer Demands However, study concluded one interesting factor i.e. the rankings and ratings of policies created for Intern et continues to focus on demands of the web users. Moreover, consumer privacy continues to be on top in both the decades (Parayitam, Desai et al. 2008). The amplified awareness by the contributors i.e. legislators and advocates shows interest level is comparatively high. 1.4 Sugar Coating Privacy Policy Clauses It is very common for a web user seeking for a privacy policy will only able to read some pages mentioned in terms of points, applauses etc. In order to enhance customer experience with privacy policies, there must be an interactive medium via which customer can get awareness. Literature related to serious implication was also found, For instance, organizations construct the structure of sentences in a way that suits their legal rights. A study conducted by (Pollach 2007) shows that the structure of sentences in a privacy policy related to a typical online shopping website are sugarcoating data handling practices. They are foregrounding optimistic facets and at the same time back-grounding privacy incursions. 1.5 Approach From Corporate Organizations A study conducted by (Markel 2005). He concluded that corporate organizations gather personal information from their users on four core factors stated below: To provide value added services to special customers. For instance, history of customers reflects high profile of purchasing or selling products via the site. Moreover, these websites also provide forms, in order to register a customer so that he or she can access ‘only members’ portion of the website that may include special discounts and offers. Organizations also customize website contents and design according to the type of customer, in order to modify web experience. The customization is carried out as per customer’s interest that is extracted from the past history of buying and selling products. Moreover, in order to buy any product from the website, corporate organizations require shipping and billing information in order to sell the product to the web user. Corporate organization also trade customer information to third parties. This business activity is carried out to strengthen business relationships. The information can only be used for online marketing and advertisement purposes.

Japanese Industrialization and Economic Growth Essay Example for Free

Japanese Industrialization and Economic Growth Essay Japan achieved sustained growth in per capita income between the 1880s and 1970 through industrialization. Moving along an income growth trajectory through expansion of manufacturing is hardly unique. Indeed Western Europe, Canada, Australia and the United States all attained high levels of income per capita by shifting from agrarian-based production to manufacturing and technologically sophisticated service sector activity. Still, there are four distinctive features of Japans development through industrialization that merit discussion: The proto-industrial base Japans agricultural productivity was high enough to sustain substantial craft (proto-industrial) production in both rural and urban areas of the country prior to industrialization. Investment-led growth Domestic investment in industry and infrastructure was the driving force behind growth in Japanese output. Both private and public sectors invested in infrastructure, national and local governments serving as coordinating agents for infrastructure build-up. * Investment in manufacturing capacity was largely left to the private sector. * Rising domestic savings made increasing capital accumulation possible. * Japanese growth was investment-led, not export-led. Total factor productivity growth achieving more output per unit of input was rapid. On the supply side, total factor productivity growth was extremely important. Scale economies the reduction in per unit costs due to increased levels of output contributed to total factor productivity growth. Scale economies existed due to geographic concentration, to growth of the national economy, and to growth in the output of individual companies. In addition, companies moved down the learning curve, reducing unit costs as their cumulative output rose and demand for their product soared. The social capacity for importing and adapting foreign technology improved and this contributed to total factor productivity growth: * At the household level, investing in education of children improved social capability. * At the firm level, creating internalized labor markets that bound firms to workers and workers to firms, thereby giving workers a strong incentive to flexibly adapt to new technology, improved social capability. * At the government level, industrial policy that reduced the cost to private firms of securing foreign technology enhanced social capacity. Shifting out of low-productivity agriculture into high productivity manufacturing, mining, and construction contributed to total factor productivity growth. Dualism Sharply segmented labor and capital markets emerged in Japan after the 1910s. The capital intensive sector enjoying high ratios of capital to labor paid relatively high wages, and the labor intensive sector paid relatively low wages. Dualism contributed to income inequality and therefore to domestic social unrest. After 1945 a series of public policy reforms addressed inequality and erased much of the social bitterness around dualism that ravaged Japan prior to World War II. The remainder of this article will expand on a number of the themes mentioned above. The appendix reviews quantitative evidence concerning these points. The conclusion of the article lists references that provide a wealth of detailed evidence supporting the points above, which this article can only begin to explore. The Legacy of Autarky and the Proto-Industrial Economy: Achievements of Tokugawa Japan (1600-1868) Why Japan? Given the relatively poor record of countries outside the European cultural area few achieving the kind of catch-up growth Japan managed between 1880 and 1970 the question naturally arises: why Japan? After all, when the United States forcibly opened Japan in the 1850s and Japan was forced to cede extra-territorial rights to a number of Western nations as had China earlier in the 1840s, many Westerners and Japanese alike thought Japans prospects seemed dim indeed. Tokugawa achievements: urbanization, road networks, rice cultivation, craft production In answering this question, Mosk (2001), Minami (1994) and Ohkawa and Rosovsky (1973) emphasize the achievements of Tokugawa Japan (1600-1868) during a long period of closed country autarky between the mid-seventeenth century and the 1850s: a high level of urbanization; well developed road networks; the channeling of river water flow with embankments and the extensive elaboration of irrigation ditches that supported and encouraged the refinement of rice cultivation based upon improving seed varieties, fertilizers and planting methods especially in the Southwest with its relatively long growing season; the development of proto-industrial (craft) production by merchant houses in the major cities like Osaka and Edo (now called Tokyo) and its diffusion to rural areas after 1700; and the promotion of education and population control among both the military elite (the samurai) and the well-to-do peasantr y in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Tokugawa political economy: daimyo and shogun These developments were inseparable from the political economy of Japan. The system of confederation government introduced at the end of the fifteenth century placed certain powers in the hands of feudal warlords, daimyo, and certain powers in the hands of the shogun, the most powerful of the warlords. Each daimyo and the shogun was assigned a geographic region, a domain, being given taxation authority over the peasants residing in the villages of the domain. Intercourse with foreign powers was monopolized by the shogun, thereby preventing daimyo from cementing alliances with other countries in an effort to overthrow the central government. The samurai military retainers of thedaimyo were forced to abandon rice farming and reside in the castle town headquarters of their daimyo overlord. In exchange, samurai received rice stipends from the rice taxes collected from the villages of their domain. By removingsamurai from the countryside by demilitarizing rural areas conflicts over local water rights were largely made a thing of the past. As a result irrigation ditches were extended throughout the valleys, and riverbanks were shored up with stone embankments, facilitating transport and preventing flooding. The sustained growth of proto-industrialization in urban Japan, and its widespread diffusion to villages after 1700 was also inseparable from the productivity growth in paddy rice production and the growing of industrial crops like tea, fruit, mulberry plant growing (that sustained the raising of silk cocoons) and cotton. Indeed, Smith (1988) has given pride of place to these domestic sources of Japans future industrial success. Readiness to emulate the West As a result of these domestic advances, Japan was well positioned to take up the Western challenge. It harnessed its infrastructure, its high level of literacy, and its proto-industrial distribution networks to the task of emulating Western organizational forms and Western techniques in energy production, first and foremost enlisting inorganic energy sources like coal and the other fossil fuels to generate steam power. Having intensively developed the organic economy depending upon natural energy flows like wind, water and fire, Japanese were quite prepared to master inorganic production after the Black Ships of the Americans forced Japan to jettison its long-standing autarky. From Balanced to Dualistic Growth, 1887-1938: Infrastructure and Manufacturing Expand Fukoku Kyohei After the Tokugawa government collapsed in 1868, a new Meiji government committed to the twin policies of fukoku kyohei (wealthy country/strong military) took up the challenge of renegotiating its treaties with the Western powers. It created infrastructure that facilitated industrialization. It built a modern navy and army that could keep the Western powers at bay and establish a protective buffer zone in North East Asia that eventually formed the basis for a burgeoning Japanese empire in Asia and the Pacific. Central government reforms in education, finance and transportation Jettisoning the confederation style government of the Tokugawa era, the new leaders of the new Meiji government fashioned a unitary state with powerful ministries consolidating authority in the capital, Tokyo. The freshly minted Ministry of Education promoted compulsory primary schooling for the masses and elite university education aimed at deepening engineering and scientific knowledge. The Ministry of Finance created the Bank of Japan in 1882, laying the foundations for a private banking system backed up a lender of last resort. The government began building a steam railroad trunk line girding the four major islands, encouraging private companies to participate in the project. In particular, the national government committed itself to constructing a Tokaido line connecting the Tokyo/Yokohama region to the Osaka/Kobe conurbation along the Pacific coastline of the main island of Honshu, and to creating deepwater harbors at Yokohama and Kobe that could accommodate deep-hulled steamships. Not surprisingly, the merchants in Osaka, the merchant capital of Tokugawa Japan, already well versed in proto-industrial production, turned to harnessing steam and coal, investing heavily in integrated sp inning and weaving steam-driven textile mills during the 1880s. Diffusion of best-practice agriculture At the same time, the abolition of the three hundred or so feudal fiefs that were the backbone of confederation style-Tokugawa rule and their consolidation into politically weak prefectures, under a strong national government that virtually monopolized taxation authority, gave a strong push to the diffusion of best practice agricultural technique. The nationwide diffusion of seed varieties developed in the Southwest fiefs of Tokugawa Japan spearheaded a substantial improvement in agricultural productivity especially in the Northeast. Simultaneously, expansion of agriculture using traditional Japanese technology agriculture and manufacturing using imported Western technology resulted. Balanced growth Growth at the close of the nineteenth century was balanced in the sense that traditional and modern technology using sectors grew at roughly equal rates, and labor especially young girls recruited out of farm households to labor in the steam using textile mills flowed back and forth between rural and urban Japan at wages that were roughly equal in industrial and agricultural pursuits. Geographic economies of scale in the Tokaido belt Concentration of industrial production first in Osaka and subsequently throughout the Tokaido belt fostered powerful geographic scale economies (the ability to reduce per unit costs as output levels increase), reducing the costs of securing energy, raw materials and access to global markets for enterprises located in the great harbor metropolises stretching from the massive Osaka/Kobe complex northward to the teeming Tokyo/Yokohama conurbation. Between 1904 and 1911, electrification mainly due to the proliferation of intercity electrical railroads created economies of scale in the nascent industrial belt facing outward onto the Pacific. The consolidation of two huge hydroelectric power grids during the 1920s one servicing Tokyo/Yokohama, the other Osaka and Kobe further solidified the comparative advantage of the Tokaido industrial belt in factory production. Finally, the widening and paving during the 1920s of roads that could handle buses and trucks was also pioneered by the grea t metropolises of the Tokaido, which further bolstered their relative advantage in per capita infrastructure. Organizational economies of scale zaibatsu In addition to geographic scale economies, organizational scale economies also became increasingly important in the late nineteenth centuries. The formation of the zaibatsu (financial cliques), which gradually evolved into diversified industrial combines tied together through central holding companies, is a case in point. By the 1910s these had evolved into highly diversified combines, binding together enterprises in banking and insurance, trading companies, mining concerns, textiles, iron and steel plants, and machinery manufactures. By channeling profits from older industries into new lines of activity like electrical machinery manufacturing, the zaibatsu form of organization generated scale economies in finance, trade and manufacturing, drastically reducing information-gathering and transactions costs. By attracting relatively scare managerial and entrepreneurial talent, the zaibatsu format economized on human resources. Electrification The push into electrical machinery production during the 1920s had a revolutionary impact on manufacturing. Effective exploitation of steam power required the use of large central steam engines simultaneously driving a large number of machines power looms and mules in a spinning/weaving plant for instance throughout a factory. Small enterprises did not mechanize in the steam era. But with electrification the unit drive system of mechanization spread. Each machine could be powered up independently of one another. Mechanization spread rapidly to the smallest factory. Emergence of the dualistic economy With the drive into heavy industries chemicals, iron and steel, machinery the demand for skilled labor that would flexibly respond to rapid changes in technique soared. Large firms in these industries began offering premium wages and guarantees of employment in good times and bad as a way of motivating and holding onto valuable workers. A dualistic economy emerged during the 1910s. Small firms, light industry and agriculture offered relatively low wages. Large enterprises in the heavy industries offered much more favorable remuneration, extending paternalistic benefits like company housing and company welfare programs to their internal labor markets. As a result a widening gulf opened up between the great metropolitan centers of the Tokaido and rural Japan. Income per head was far higher in the great industrial centers than in the hinterland. Clashing urban/rural and landlord/tenant interests The economic strains of emergent dualism were amplified by the slowing down of technological progress in the agricultural sector, which had exhaustively reaped the benefits due to regional diffusion from the Southwest to the Northeast of best practice Tokugawa rice cultivation. Landlords around 45% of the cultivable rice paddy land in Japan was held in some form of tenancy at the beginning of the twentieth century who had played a crucial role in promoting the diffusion of traditional best practice techniques now lost interest in rural affairs and turned their attention to industrial activities. Tenants also found their interests disregarded by the national authorities in Tokyo, who were increasingly focused on supplying cheap foodstuffs to the burgeoning industrial belt by promoting agricultural production within the empire that it was assembling through military victories. Japan secured Taiwan from China in 1895, and formally brought Korea under its imperial rule in 1910 upon the heels of its successful war against Russia in 1904-05. Tenant unions reacted to this callous disrespect of their needs through violence. Landlord/tenant disputes broke out in the early 1920s, and continued to plague Japan politically throughout the 1930s, calls for land reform and bureaucratic proposals for reform being rejected by a Diet (Japans legislature) politically dominated by landlords. Japans military expansion Japans thrust to imperial expansion was inflamed by the growing instability of the geopolitical and international trade regime of the later 1920s and early 1930s. The relative decline of the United Kingdom as an economic power doomed a gold standard regime tied to the British pound. The United States was becoming a potential contender to the United Kingdom as the backer of a gold standard regime but its long history of high tariffs and isolationism deterred it from taking over leadership in promoting global trade openness. Germany and the Soviet Union were increasingly becoming industrial and military giants on the Eurasian land mass committed to ideologies hostile to the liberal democracy championed by the United Kingdom and the United States. It was against this international backdrop that Japan began aggressively staking out its claim to being the dominant military power in East Asia and the Pacific, thereby bringing it into conflict with the United States and the United Kingdom i n the Asian and Pacific theaters after the world slipped into global warfare in 1939. Reform and Reconstruction in a New International Economic Order, Japan after World War II Postwar occupation: economic and institutional restructuring Surrendering to the United States and its allies in 1945, Japans economy and infrastructure was revamped under the S.C.A.P (Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers) Occupation lasting through 1951. As Nakamura (1995) points out, a variety of Occupation-sponsored reforms transformed the institutional environment conditioning economic performance in Japan. The major zaibatsu were liquidated by the Holding Company Liquidation Commission set up under the Occupation (they were revamped as keiretsu corporate groups mainly tied together through cross-shareholding of stock in the aftermath of the Occupation); land reform wiped out landlordism and gave a strong push to agricultural productivity through mechanization of rice cultivation; and collective bargaining, largely illegal under the Peace Preservation Act that was used to suppress union organizing during the interwar period, was given the imprimatur of constitutional legality. Finally, education was opened up, partly through making middle school compulsory, partly through the creation of national universities in each of Japans forty-six prefectures. Improvement in the social capability for economic growth In short, from a domestic point of view, the social capability for importing and adapting foreign technology was improved with the reforms in education and the fillip to competition given by the dissolution of the zaibatsu. Resolving tension between rural and urban Japan through land reform and the establishment of a rice price support program that guaranteed farmers incomes comparable to blue collar industrial workers also contributed to the social capacity to absorb foreign technology by suppressing the political divisions between metropolitan and hinterland Japan that plagued the nation during the interwar years. Japan and the postwar international order The revamped international economic order contributed to the social capability of importing and adapting foreign technology. The instability of the 1920s and 1930s was replaced with replaced with a relatively predictable bipolar world in which the United States and the Soviet Union opposed each other in both geopolitical and ideological arenas. The United States became an architect of multilateral architecture designed to encourage trade through its sponsorship of the United Nations, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (the predecessor to the World Trade Organization). Under the logic of building military alliances to contain Eurasian Communism, the United States brought Japan under its nuclear umbrella with a bilateral security treaty. American companies were encouraged to license technology to Japanese companies in the new international environment. Japan redirected its trade away from the areas that had been incorporated i nto the Japanese Empire before 1945, and towards the huge and expanding American market. Miracle Growth: Soaring Domestic Investment and Export Growth, 1953-1970 Its infrastructure revitalized through the Occupation period reforms, its capacity to import and export enhanced by the new international economic order, and its access to American technology bolstered through its security pact with the United States, Japan experienced the dramatic Miracle Growth between 1953 and the early 1970s whose sources have been cogently analyzed by Denison and Chung (1976). Especially striking in the Miracle Growth period was the remarkable increase in the rate of domestic fixed capital formation, the rise in the investment proportion being matched by a rising savings rate whose secular increase especially that of private household savings has been well documented and analyzed by Horioka (1991). While Japan continued to close the gap in income per capita between itself and the United States after the early 1970s, most scholars believe that large Japanese manufacturing enterprises had b y and large become internationally competitive by the early 1970s. In this sense it can be said that Japan had completed its nine decade long convergence to international competitiveness through industrialization by the early 1970s. MITI There is little doubt that the social capacity to import and adapt foreign technology was vastly improved in the aftermath of the Pacific War. Creating social consensus with Land Reform and agricultural subsidies reduced political divisiveness, extending compulsory education and breaking up the zaibatsu had a positive impact. Fashioning the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (M.I.T.I.) that took responsibility for overseeing industrial policy is also viewed as facilitating Japans social capability. There is no doubt that M.I.T.I. drove down the cost of securing foreign technology. By intervening between Japanese firms and foreign companies, it acted as a single buyer of technology, playing off competing American and European enterprises in order to reduce the royalties Japanese concerns had to pay on technology licenses. By keeping domestic patent periods short, M.I.T.I. encouraged rapid diffusion of technology. And in some cases the experience of International Business Machines (I.B.M.), enjoying a virtual monopoly in global mainframe computer markets during the 1950s and early 1960s, is a classical case M.I.T.I. made it a condition of entry into the Japanese market (through the creation of a subsidiary Japan I.B.M. in the case of I.B.M.) that foreign companies share many of their technological secrets with potential Japanese competitors. How important industrial policy was for Miracle Growth remains controversial, however. The view of Johnson (1982), who hails industrial policy as a pillar of the Japanese Development State (government promoting economic growth through state policies) has been criticized and revised by subsequent scholars. The book by Uriu (1996) is a case in point. Internal labor markets, just-in-time inventory and quality control circles Furthering the internalization of labor markets the premium wages and long-term employment guarantees largely restricted to white col lar workers were extended to blue collar workers with the legalization of unions and collective bargaining after 1945 also raised the social capability of adapting foreign technology. Internalizing labor created a highly flexible labor force in post-1950 Japan. As a result, Japanese workers embraced many of the key ideas of Just-in-Time inventory control and Quality Control circles in assembly industries, learning how to do rapid machine setups as part and parcel of an effort to produce components just-in-time and without defect. Ironically, the concepts of just-in-time and quality control were originally developed in the United States, just-in-time methods being pioneered by supermarkets and quality control by efficiency experts like W. Edwards Deming. Yet it was in Japan that these concepts were relentlessly pursued to revolutionize assembly line industries during the 1950s and 1960s. Ultimate causes of the Japanese economic miracle Miracle Growth was the completion of a protracted historical process involving enhancing human capital, massive accumulation of physical capital including infrastructure and private manufacturing capacity, the importation and adaptation of foreign technology, and the creation of scale economies, which took decades and decades to realize. Dubbed a miracle, it is best seen as the reaping of a bountiful harvest whose seeds were painstakingly planted in the six decades between 1880 and 1938. In the course of the nine decades between the 1880s and 1970, Japan amassed and lost a sprawling empire, reorienting its trade and geopolitical stance through the twists and turns of history. While the ultimate sources of growth can be ferreted out through some form of statistical accounting, the specific way these sources were marshaled in practice is inseparable from the history of Japan itself and of the global environment within which it has realized its industrial destiny. Appendix: Sources of Growth Accounting and Quantitative Aspects of Japans Modern Economic Development One of the attractions of studying Japans post-1880 economic development is the abundance of quantitative data documenting Japans growth. Estimates of Japanese income and output by sector, capital stock and labor force extend back to the 1880s, a period when Japanese income per capita was low. Consequently statistical probing of Japans long-run growth from relative poverty to abundance is possible. The remainder of this appendix is devoted to introducing the reader to the vast literature on quantitative analysis of Japans economic development from the 1880s until 1970, a nine decade period during which Japanese income per capita converged towards income per capita levels in Western Europe. As the reader will see, this discussion confirms the importance of factors discussed at the outset of this article. Our initial touchstone is the excellent sources of growth accounting analysis carried out by Denison and Chung (1976) on Japans growth between 1953 and 1971. Attributing growth in national income in growth of inputs, the factors of production capital and labor and growth in output per unit of the two inputs combined (total factor productivity) along the following lines: G(Y) = { a G(K) + [1-a] G(L) } + G (A) where G(Y) is the (annual) growth of national output, g(K) is the growth rate of capital services, G(L) is the growth rate of labor services, a is capitals share in national income (the share of income accruing to owners of capital), and G(A) is the growth of total factor productivity, is a standard approach used to approximate the sources of growth of income. Using a variant of this type of decomposition that takes into account improvements in the quality of capital and labor, estimates of scale economies and adjustments for structural change (shifting labor out of agriculture helps explain why total factor productivity grows), Denison and Chung (1976) generate a useful set of estimates for Japans Miracle Growth era. Operating with this sources of growth approach and proceeding under a variety of plausible assumptions, Denison and Chung (1976) estimate that of Japans average annual real national income growth of 8.77 % over 1953-71, input growth accounted for 3.95% (accounting for 45% of total growth) and growth in output per unit of input contributed 4.82% (accounting for 55% of total growth). To be sure, the precise assumptions and techniques they use can be criticized. The precise numerical results they arrive at can be argued over. Still, their general point that Japans growth was the result of improvements in the quality of factor inputs health and education for workers, for instance and improvements in the way these inputs are utilized in production due to technological and organizational change, reallocation of resources from agriculture to non-agriculture, and scale economies, is defensible. Notes: [a] Maddison (2000) provides estimates of real income that take into account the purchasing power of national currencies. [b] Ohkawa (1979) gives estimates for the N sector that is defined as manufacturing and mining (Ma) plus construction plus facilitating industry (transport, communications and utilities). It should be noted that the concept of an N sector is not standard in the field of economics. [c] The estimates of trade are obtained by adding merchandise imports to merchandise exports. Trade openness is estimated by taking the ratio of total (merchandise) trade to national output, the latter defined as Gross Domestic Product (G.D.P.). The trade figures include trade with Japans empire (Korea, Taiwan, Manchuria, etc.); the income figures for Japan exclude income generated in the empire. [d] The Human Development Index is a composite variable formed by adding together indices for educational attainment, for health (using life expectancy that is inversely related to the level of the infant mortality rate, the IMR), and for real per capita income. For a detailed discussion of this index see United Nations Development Programme (2000). [e] Electrical generation is measured in million kilowatts generated and supplied. For 1970, the figures on NHK subscribers are for television subscribers. The symbol n.a. = not available. Sources: The figures in this table are taken from various pages and tables in Japan Statistical Association (1987), Maddison (2000), Minami (1994), and Ohkawa (1979). Flowing from this table are a number of points that bear lessons of the Denison and Chung (1976) decomposition. One cluster of points bears upon the timing of Japans income per capita growth and the relationship of manufacturing expansion to income growth. Another highlights improvements in the quality of the labor input. Yet another points to the overriding importance of domestic investment in manufacturing and the lesser significance of trade demand. A fourth group suggests that infrastructure has been important to economic growth and industrial expansion in Japan, as exemplified by the figures on electricity generating capacity and the mass diffusion of communications in the form of radio and television broadcasting. Several parts of Table 1 point to industrialization, defined as an increase in the proportion of output (and labor force) attributable to manufacturing and mining, as the driving force in explaining Japans income per capita growth. Notable in Panels A and B of the tab le is that the gap between Japanese and American income per capita closed most decisively during the 1910s, the 1930s, and the 1960s, precisely the periods when manufacturing expansion was the most vigorous. Equally noteworthy of the spurts of the 1910s, 1930s and the 1960s is the overriding importance of gross domestic fixed capital formation, that is investment, for growth in demand. By contrast, trade seems much less important to growth in demand during these critical decades, a point emphasized by both Minami (1994) and by Ohkawa and Rosovsky (1973). The notion that Japanese growth was export led during the nine decades between 1880 and 1970 when Japan caught up technologically with the leading Western nations is not defensible. Rather, domestic capital investment seems to be the driving force behind aggregate demand expansion. The periods of especially intense capital formation were also the periods when manufacturing production soared. Capital formation in manufacturing, or in infrastructure supporting manufacturing expansion, is the main agent pushing long-run income per capita growth. Why? As Ohkawa and Rosovsky (1973) argue, spurts in manufacturing capital formation were associated with the import and adaptation of foreign technology, especially from the United States These investment spurts were also associated with shifts of labor force out of agriculture and into manufacturing, construction and facilitating sectors where labor productivity was far higher than it was in labor-intensive farming centered around labor-intensive rice cultivation. The logic of productivity gain due to more efficient allocation of labor resources is apparent from the right hand column of Panel A in Table 1. Finally, Panel C of Table 1 suggests that infrastructure investment that facilitated health and educational attainment (combined public and private expenditure on sanitation, schools and research laboratories), and public/private investment in physical infrastructure including dams and hydroelectric power grids helped fuel the expansion of manufacturing by improving human capital and by reducing the costs of transportation, communications and energy supply faced by private factories. Mosk (2001) argues that investments in human-capital-enhancing (medicine, public health and education), financial (banking) and physical infrastructure (harbors, roads, power grids, railroads and communications) laid the groundwork for industrial expansions. Indeed, the social capability for importing and adapting foreign technology emphasized by Ohkawa and Rosovsky (1973) can be largely explained by an infrastructure-driven growth hypothesis like that given by Mosk (2001). In sum, Denison and Chung (1976) argue that a combination of input factor improvement and growth in output per combined factor inputs account for Japans most rapid spurt of economic growth. Table 1 suggests that labor quality improved because health was enhanced and educational attainment increased; that investment in manufacturing was important not only because it increased capital stock itself but also because it reduced dependence on agriculture and went hand in glove with improvements in knowledge; and that th e social capacity to absorb and adapt Western technology that fueled improvements in knowledge was associated with infrastructure investment. References Denison, Edward and William Chung. Economic Growth and Its Sources. In Asias Next Giant: How the Japanese Economy Works, edited by Hugh Patrick and Henry Rosovsky, 63-151. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1976. Horioka, Charles Y. Future Trends in Japans Savings Rate and the Implications Thereof for Japans External Imbalance.Japan and the World Economy 3 (1991): 307-330. Japan Statistical Association. Historical Statistics of Japan [Five Volumes]. Tokyo: Japan Statistical Association, 1987. Johnson, Chalmers. MITI and the Japanese Miracle: The Growth of Industrial Policy, 1925-1975. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1982. Maddison, Angus. Monitoring the World Economy, 1820-1992. Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2000. Minami, Ryoshin. Economic Development of Japan: A Quantitative Study. [Second edition]. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan Press, 1994. Mitchell, Brian. International Historical Statistics: Africa and Asia. New York: New York University Press, 1982. Mosk, Carl. Japanese Industrial History: Technology, Urbanization, and Economic Growth. Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2001. Nakamura, Takafusa. The Postwar Japanese Economy: Its Development and Structure, 1937-1994. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1995. Ohkawa, Kazushi. Production Structure. In Patterns of Japanese Economic Development: A Quantitative Appraisal, edited by Kazushi Ohkawa and Miyohei Shinohara with Larry Meissner, 34-58. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979. Ohkawa, Kazushi and Henry Rosovsky. Japanese Economic Growth: Trend Acceleration in the Twentieth Century. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1973. Smith, Thomas. Native Sources of Japanese Industrialization, 1750-1920. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988. Uriu, Robert. Troubled Industries: Confronting Economic Challenge in Japan. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996. United Nations Development Programme. Human Development Report, 2000. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. Citation: Mosk, Carl. Japan, Industrialization and Economic Growth. EH.Net Encyclopedia, edited by Robert Whaples. January 18, 2004. URL http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/mosk.japan.final

Saint Thomas Aquinas’ Political Theory Analysis

Saint Thomas Aquinas’ Political Theory Analysis Courtney Deed How did St Thomas Aquinas justify the coercive authority of the state? How did he justify war? Are his justifications of state authority and war compatible? Are they convincing? Why/ Why not? This essay will critically examine Saint Thomas Aquinas’ political theory on the coercive authority of the state and his justification of war. Authority and power have been utilized as a form of social control to regulate the masses. It ensures the common good for people so that they can live amicably, as much as possible, with one and another (Finnis, 1998). Without some form of social control, there would be questionably, no state. Political authority is not only necessary for social control, but is also necessary to bring all to virtue (Weithman, 1992). Definition of Terms In the interests of transparency, key terms in this essay include; the state, authority, legitimacy, law and war. Morris (2011) describes the state to be â€Å"the principal political entity or form of political organization†. Narveson (2008) concurs with this assessment of state, only adding that it is a considerable number of people, in the same area, bound by the same government. In Summa Theologica, Aquinas defines law as â€Å"a rule or measure of action in virtue of which one is led to perform certain actions† (ST in Coleman). In essence, laws are rules fashioned by the legislature for the benefit, safety and uniformity of civilians. Authority is power of people, of any kind to rule (Narveson, 2008). From this, coercive authority is when power is enforced through suppression of right and the use of fear and distress. It is a common tool in tyrannical or dictatorial government systems. Legitimacy is the compliance and acceptance of rules and laws by society (Vinaya gamoorth, 2013). If civilians do not accept direction by the rule maker, their authority is not legitimate. Finally, war is organised conflict between two groups of people (Smith, 2012) How did he justify the coercive nature of the state? Power and law making are inextricably linked. The legislator creates laws and as these are enforced, power over the state is defined. Coercive nature stems from the forcible decisions on law that a ruler makes. Aquinas proposes an explanation for this, it is an â€Å"ordinance of reason for the common good of a [complete] community, promulgated by the person or body responsible for looking after that community† (Summa Theologica in Finnis, 1998). Aquinas comments in Summa Theologica that the masses have to assent to be ruled and then by â€Å"practical proposition† law is made by those who are responsible for ruling (Finnis, 1998). From this it is clear that as long as civilians accept the rule then any law that is made is legitimate. Aquinas observes that â€Å"every set of laws is addressed by two kinds of people: the obstinate and the proud who are restrained and disciplined by law and the good who are assisted by the law’s guidance to fulfil their good inten tions† (ST) If an authoritative decision is made to solve a problem, then it will be accepted by the masses. Finnis (1998) reinforces this, stating â€Å"the authoritative decision, whether legislative, executive or judicial †¦ will not result in co-ordination unless it is accepted as settling the question, and accepted even by those who would have preferred a different decision, a different law†. This has a run- on effect to decisions that are made coercively. By definition, if society assent to the power of legislators, then even autocratic decisions are justified and accepted. A local example of this, the Clyde River Dam Saga in New Zealand in the 1960’s under the prime ministership of Robert Muldoon. Aquinas identifies two types of ruling; ordered for governing and for the sake of domination. Ordered for governing is where it is for the good of those who are being ruled. This would be the King, who for the common good makes decisions to help and benefit his subjects. The King is free from coercive restraint, as he can alter it himself. Aquinas comments that he is, however, subject to the laws of God (Dunbabin, 1988). The second, is for the good of the ruler. Aquinas likens this as a master over his slaves (Weithman 1992). Aquinas believes that law, and by explanation the coercive nature of the state is forced onto the community, â€Å"citizens don’t have [a] choice about it- it isn’t a piece of advice, it’s an order!† (Narveson, 2008). These orders, have to be rational and more importantly legitimate, â€Å"an ordinance of reason for the common good, promulgated and enforced by the one who is in charge of the community† (Summa Theologica). So, a s citizens, we accept valid ruling for our benefit and for the benefit of the community. It is trust, that the ruler is making the Aquinas is fixated on the notion of the common good. On surface level, this could be likened to peace, success and contentment. Aquinas looks at the best for the most people rather than the best option. Aquinas argued the common good is a reasonable and rational objective for all people. It is from this point that he founded his belief that civilians can disobey laws, as long as disgrace would not result should they choose not to follow (Dunbabin 1988). However, when considering Aquinas’ views on the execution of heretics, it questions whether the common good is only about harmony but rather what the Roman Catholic faith would like to see. In Summa Theologica, Aquinas directly addresses this issue, asserting if heretics cannot be made to see reason by priests, they can be executed. Aquinas justifies the nature of power and the co-ordination of society by using the law. This does not have to coercive – it is just power. However, by way of authority and legitimate rule, this power can be coercive. How did he justify war? Aquinas has a firm view on war, but more importantly, how war is imposed. He believed the act itself, of war, to be â€Å"a sin in itself† (Summa Theologica) However, rather than the act, Aquinas is concerned with the decision to start the war. This stems from the Romanic notion of ‘just cause’ for war. Just cause is a moral criterion to justify the invasion or aggression against another country. It weighs up, on the balance of facts, if it is permissible for one country to wage war on another. In the Summa Theologica, Aquinas outlines the three prerequisites for a just war. Firstly, the authority of the sovereign must be legitimate. It is not for the private individual to wage war, but rather the ruler maker, or sovereign. The private individual â€Å"can seek for redress of his rights from the tribunal of his superior† and in war time, it is not for ordinary people to make such decisions. The sovereign must â€Å"summon together the people, which has to be done in war time† (Summa Theologica). If the sovereign cannot bring together the masses, his authority cannot be legitimate. The ultimate test for legitimacy is whether a ruler will be followed. The second, just cause is required. The decision to go to war has to be made by the Sovereign or public authority as â€Å"no private person has the right to initiate war† (Summa Theologica in Finnis 1998) Aquinas explains this to be â€Å"those who are attacked, should be attacked because they deserve it on account of some fault† (Summa Theologica). Aquinas believes that, just cause allows for and to defend the common good. This may mean avenging and punishing adversaries for sins committed by or against the enemy state. Finnis (1998) describes this could be being attacked by reason of their guilt in respect of some wrong which they refuse or fail to rectify. Persecution or self-defence is an example of this. It should be noted, that Aquinas does not belief that war a nd be waged to impose religion, even if those fighting it believe it to be the true religion. The third requirement of a just war is the combatants have the right intention to engage in war. In Summa Theologica, Aquinas says that this includes â€Å"[the] right intention so that they intend the advancement of good or the avoidance of evil†. The right intention must be held above all else. There can be no ulterior motive or secret agenda when faced with the question of war. War must be used as a means to quell a situation and for absolutely no reason, should war be used as punishment or for any ferocious means. Once all requirements of war are satisfied, Aquinas then looks to the legitimacy of the ruler. It is them, who make the decision. Aquinas believes that it is only the public official who can legitimately start combative and engage the public in war (Mooney, 2007). A ruler who lacks legitimacy is a tyrant. Aquinas, ever early on makes the clear distinction between what he calls the private and the public citizen. The private, an ordinary person, who subjects their will to the state and dutifully obliges to the rule of the sovereign, conditional on the legality of the situation. The public official â€Å"charged with public authority, directing men by law to the common good, are unifying and co-ordinating functionaries, representatives of the corporate will of the community† (Coleman, 2000). From this it is inferred that by doing their job, as well as being part of the group, they are bringing society towards the common good. It can be likened with the idea of utility, the best option for the most amount of people. It should be now mentioned, that a solider, conscripted or not, is innocent of any killing or war crimes should he be ordered to do it from a higher authority (Miller, 2002) Therefore, Aquinas condones and justifies warfare should the decision be made by the correct person. For war to be justified, a public authority has to make the decision; bearing in mind just cause and have the right intention to go to war. Right intention may include avenging what has been lost or for the common good of the populace (Miller, 2002) Are his justifications for war/ state authority compatible? Why? Why not? By virtue of one, the other follows. Through the power if the state, governed by legitimately made laws, the public official can wage war. As previous discussed, â€Å"the power of the sword, as the state understands it, is essentially the public authority of the state’s rulers and their judicial and military officers, to execute criminals and to wage war† (Finnis). Public officials, have the ultimate say in decisions. The head of state effectively can choose whether or not a country goes to war or not. To determine whether or not a decision is coercive or not it is defined by the legitimacy of the ruler. Aquinas commented in De Malo that â€Å"[people] may not have a freedom of action but they do have a freedom of choice†. This can be related to modern system of governance and ruling. In New Zealand, we follow a representative system of representation. Through the choice of enrolled adults, we elect members of parliament to best represent our interests. Although we may not agree with every decision that they may make, however for the best interests of the government, they stay in power. The best way to show how Aquinas’ justifications of war and coercive authority link is the example of self-defence. It is here Aquinas introduces the principle of double effect. Unlike the traditional approach; ‘an eye for an eye’ or using force with force, Aquinas differentiates between the intention that the person has and the repercussions that the act had. In its most basic sense, the Doctrine allows for reverence of all people (Finnis 278) Whether it is lawful to kill a man in self-defence? Principle of double effect, permits killing where it is the foreseen but unintended side-effect of doing good, where the bad does not lead to the good, and where the good outweighs the bad This is similar to Aquinas’ views on capital punishment. For the common good and betterment for the community, Aquinas condones capital punishment of extreme ‘sinners’ or evildoers. This is due to the belief that they are more likely to hurt others than to amend their behaviour (Miller, 2002). Aquinas general idea regarding capital punishment is to deter the potential criminal from offending and to uphold the common good in the community. This could be likened to the Christian thought that one must love and his neighbour above all else. By taking the choice away from civilians (‘private individuals’), they are left to continue following Jesus’ commandment. It is the ruler’s authority, which can make such decisions; to wage war, introduction sanctions or to consent to capital punishment. First, Thomas classifies an act as intrinsically good, bad, or indifferent (Miller, 2002) Old Wine in New Skins: Aquinas, Just War and Terrorism Mooney, T Brian Pacifica : Journal of the Melbourne College of Divinity; Jun 2007; 20, 2; ProQuest Central pg. 204 Aquinas and the Presumption against Killing and War Richard B. Miller The Journal of Religion, Vol. 82, No. 2 (Apr., 2002), pp. 173-204 Published by:The University of Chicago Press Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1206289 Vinayagamoorthy, K. (2013). Contextualizing legitimacy.Texas International Law Journal,48(3), 535-574. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.waikato.ac.nz/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/1398477293?accountid=17287 Ron Smiths Text book : Morality of War

The Tragic Hero of Hamlet Essay -- Essays on Shakespeare Hamlet

The Tragic Hero of Hamlet    Shakespeare's play, Hamlet illustrates the tragedy of a young prince's pursuit to obtain revenge for a corrupt act, the murder of his father.  Ã‚   As the exposition unfolds, we find Prince Hamlet struggling with internal conflict over who and what was behind his father's death.   His struggle continues as he awaits the mystic appearance of a ghost who is reported to resemble his father.   Suddenly it appears, proclaiming, "Pity me not, but lend thy serious hearing / To what I shall unfold" (1.5.5-6).   The ghost continues to speak providing an important clue: "The serpent that did sting thy father's life / Now wears his crown" (1.5.38-39).   In short, this passage reveals evidence leading to the identity of whom Prince Hamlet must pursue in order to obtain revenge.   Moreover, Prince Hamlet's pursuit for revenge casts him into the role of a tragic hero, whose decision to feign madness enables the audience to see his tragic flaw, which seals his fate of destruction. Tragic heroes are characterized as the protagonists of a tragedy who begin in a state of happiness and fall into destruction.   The manner in which Prince Hamlet's happiness is affected, causing him to assume the role of a tragic hero is through the loss of his father, which drives him into a state of depression.   Also, the hasty remarriage of his mother, Queen Gertrude to his uncle, Claudius, the new king becomes significant, as he is reluctant to support this marriage.   His reluctance is portrayed later in the play as he speaks to Gertrude, saying, Look her upon this picture, and on this, The counterfeit presentment of two brothers.  Ã‚   See what a grace was seated on this brow: Hyperion's curls, the front of Jove himself, An eye like Mar... ...eare. Ed. Gerald Chapman. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965. Epstein, Norrie. "One of Destiny's Casualties." Readings on Hamlet. Ed. Don Nardo. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1999. Rpt. of The Friendly Shakespeare: A Thoroughly Painless to the Best of the Bard. New York: Viking Penguin, 1993. p. 332-34. Gooch, Bryan N. S. "Review of The Shapes of Revenge: Victimization, Vengeance, and Vindictiveness in Shakespeare." Early Modern Literary Studies 4.1 (May, 1998): 5.1-6   http://purl.oclc.org/emls/04-1/rev_goo6.html. Gordon, Edward J. Introduction to Tragedy. Rochelle Park, NJ: Hayden Book Co., Inc., 1973. Jorgensen, Paul A. "Hamlet." William Shakespeare: the Tragedies. Boston: Twayne Publ., 1985. N. pag. http://www.freehomepages.com/hamlet/other/jorg-hamlet.html Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Ed. T. J. B. Spencer. New York: Penguin, 1996.

Essays --

System approach is a process of considering how different parts of the whole structure influence and integrate with each other and viewing problems in a system as affecting the system overall (Dreachslin, Gilbert, & Malone, 2013). According to Curtis, Dreachslin, and Sinioris (2007), the systems approach requires several steps, and these steps are to determine diversity and cultural competence goals in the context of strategy, measure current performance against needs, design training to address the gap, implement the training, assess training effectiveness, and strive for continuous improvement. Providing patient centered care has been the focus of recent organizational restructuring and quality improvement efforts in healthcare (Lutz & Bower, 2000). In healthcare literature, providing a patient centered care is to provide care and to meet patients’ needs. To provide a patient centered care, it is essential to understand the patient as a unique individual. It also important to be able to explore the patient’s experience of illness and finding common ground regarding treatment through shared decision making (Lutz & Bower, 2000). Given the first patient scenario, as a healthcare provider, it is essential for nurses to tailor our approaches to care for this patient. For this specific ethnicity, being overweight is seen as positive, and their traditional cuisine is rich of carbohydrates and sweets (Caballero & Tenzer, 2007). To provide best care for Mr. Garcia, it is best to provide a Spanish speaking nurse if possible, or an interpreter. It is important to educate Mr. Garcia regarding diet changes, for example, exchanging their simple flour tortilla to corn tortilla or pouring off excess grease after cooking. Increasing physical... ...n, gender, sexual orientation, and ability (Dayer-Berenson,2012). According to Goldsmith (2000), cultural competence does not require that patients be treated by using the same methods used in their country of origin. However, cultural competency does create a compelling case for understanding the different ways patients act in a clinical setting and for communicating with patients to ensure the best possible clinical outcome. Both patient-centered care and cultural competence aim to improve health care quality. As health-care workers we are held to the highest moral and ethical codes. Patients trust their lives in our hands. To live up to this trust we have to be respectful and compassionate, knowledgeable and understanding. Respect, dignity, knowledge, and patience are required to gain mutual trust in every relationship especially patient and doctor relationships.

A Call from the Lower Middle Class

Most people belonging to the lower middle class are usually those who have a little degree of education and acquire basic office and clerical jobs. A rising issue on the division of classes is the abolishment of the lower middle class and the threat of more lower classes to evolve. Thus, in order to save the lower middle class, their needs as well as priorities must be considered and given enough attention. One of the basic needs of people belonging to the said class is health care. Due to the high cost of obtaining a health insurance, only limited people are able to access to an assured quality health care. Another need that should be considered is the opportunities for high wage jobs. The salary that the lower middle class gain from their works is not sufficient especially for those who already have a family. Such salary will be allocated to the everyday budget of his family. With the continuously increasing prices of the necessary commodities, the allocation of a low wage salary would be difficult. Some of the supposedly basic necessities for the family might be disregarded and sending their children to college might also arise as a problem. With regards to education on the tertiary level, an affordable college education must be provided. Reduced cost of education for those belonging to the lower middle class families would mean great importance and assistance. Â  Provision of scholarship programs is also a solution for the problem in education. The issue on education must be given priority since this process prepares the next generation for a better job. In the long run, if the education would be adequate, then the threat for the demolition of the lower middle class will no longer exist. Other needs of the lower middle class that must be considered concerns provision of low housing programs, reduced tax payment and an improve retirement security. The said social class must not be taken in for granted because they take part in the development of the economic growth of the country. The progress of the lower middle class is a means to reflect the condition of the state’s economy. Reference Strengthening the Middle Class. Retrieved April 17, 2008, from http://www.hillaryclinton.com/issues/middleclass/

Tomorrow When the War Began Essay Year 9

anTomorrow When the War Began by John Marsden Tomorrow when the war began by John Marsden is an epic novel about the struggles 7 mismatched teens face when their home town has been invaded. A series of obstacles including love, lust, politics and friendship is just the start of what these young adults will be put up against in their journey to take back their family and their homes. Decisions will be made and sacrifices will be taken only to help build a stronger and more united front against their enemy.As in real life, first impressions matter. Teenagers come in all different shapes and sizes, and with this group there is no difference. Ellie (the view point in which this novel is written in) is the typical all-round rural teen girl. She loves a bit of girly time with her girlfriends, but doesn’t mind getting her hands dirty helping her parents out with their farm. She’s an intelligent, outgoing, frivolous, young writer who emerges primarily as the ‘glue’ that holds this odd bunch of teens together. â€Å"Rack off guys!I’ll never get this done. †(p. 1) Right from the page l, Marsden has cleverly given us our stereotypical idea of a young teen girl, using slang words like â€Å"Rack off†¦ †. (1 more quote) Homer on the other hand is quite the opposite. Besides the fact that he’s male, his initial introduction could be compared to a young boy or monkey. He’s a rule breaker and a tree shaker. He’s not one to fold under the pressures of his peers and loves to live up to his Greek ancestors. Referred to as wild and outrageous, he’s more brawn than brains.Winding up girls and smashing in windows with his mates takes his fancy, and disobedience may very well be the one word that sums up this tanned and rough Aussie rural. â€Å" Homer was wild and outrageous. He didn’t care what he did or what anyone thought. Mrs Yannos tried to make Homer eat Brussels sprouts; they had a massiv e argument which ended with Homer chucking the sprouts at his mum. Homer always seemed to be in trouble. †(p. 15-16). This extract is a great example of how Marsden has created the form work of a young and rebellious teen boy.Real life experiences are enough to change a person both physically and mentally. These are pivotal moment(s) in a person’s life that make people choose different paths and decide on who they will become from that moment on, whether they know it or not. Ellie’s character is a great example of this with the changes to her personality as the events unfold during their ordeal. This law abiding citizen goes through many tests of logic, skill and quick thinking. Although some situations may terrorise her, they still play a major part in her characters development.In the seventh chapter of this book, Ellie is faced with her first ordeal of stepping out into enemy territory and running to the safety of a tree. â€Å"A single movement was the key t o finding my spirit. There was a tree about four steps away,†¦ I suddenly made myself leave the darkness and go to it†¦. This is it. I’ve done it! It was a dance of courage. At that moment I stopped being an innocent rural teenager and started becoming someone else†¦ † (p. 81-82) Marsden has set this pivotal moment of Ellie’s journey up very well.His descriptive language and well thought-out dialogue really helps put the reader into a position where they can think like Ellie has thought and feel the transformations Ellie has undergone. She’s gotten to the point where she was able to take the plunge into her new and unknown self, leaving her child-like being behind and run towards her new found grownup self. At the beginning of the novel, Ellie portrays Kevin to be self riches guy who loves to be right and quite selfish. â€Å"He was known for having a big ego and he liked to take the credit for everything†¦ † (p. 4)His beliefs an d morals are elements of his personality that change as an effect of the war. In the final chapters of the novel Kevin emerges in a rage of love and friendship to put himself aside and help his injured girlfriend. â€Å"Corrie’s my mate and I’m not going to dump her and run. It has to be me†¦ if you don’t mind I want to do it. †(p. 281) Kevin has made a huge contrast to his old self and shown his loyalty and love for his partner, leaving himself a little more vulnerable with his feels so open unprotected. Again Marsden has incorporated the use of teen slang into Kevin’s speech, so to not lose any of its realism.A good friendship is something that binds groups of people together, no matter the situation. This group’s friendship prospers and grows between every member of the team. Some even fall in love. That’s why when it comes to making tough decisions it can be even tougher if you’re close with one another. At many a time the group finds themselves in sticky situations of life and death. An example of this would be when Homer made the unpopular decision to ask the group to split up. Some members of the group sided with logic and backed up Homer. â€Å"So what are you suggesting? (p. 75) Kevin said, but like in any argument others were against the idea. Homer’s new found leadership made it possible for him to persuade the group against friendship and to side with logic. There was some element of compromise where certain team members stayed together because of other emotional reasons but Homer still got his way. As the novel progresses we see that this decision was a good idea to take on. Marsden has used the idea of relationships between members of the group to favour his main audience of teenagers, but is still a book any age can enjoy.In summary, this â€Å"Tomorrow When The War Began† by John Marsden, delves into the emotional and quite raw parts of the teenage person. These teens a re really stripped to their bare essentials and are forced to take on a new and more sophisticated perspective and personality. Some characters may be idealised for their courage to stand up and make a change. A responder can really relate and take on their emotional journey’s which is another reason why this book is so popular with its wide audience.

Montana 1948

Practise Essay Montana 1948 â€Å"Don’t blame Montana! † He said, â€Å"Don’t ever blame Montana! † Who is to blame for the events of 1948? Discuss Montana 1948, by Larry Watson is novel set in American mid-west that raises a question who was to blame for the tragic events that occurred that summer. David Hayden the narrator of Montana re-collects powerful information that uphold his father Wesley Hayden losing control of himself and his emotion to his daughter-in-law due to the fact, she commented it was the â€Å"wild west† who was to blame.It became vibrant to the reader, that in response to Wesley’s actions that Montana was truly important to him and he would not accept anyone that held Montana responsible from the events the occurred within the summer of 1948. By clearly stating that Montana was not to blame, Sheriff Hayden means that it was the whites in Montana as well as his family and himself who were held responsible from the events that arose within the summer of 1948. The whole white population within Mercer County were partly responsible for the terrible events of Montana 1948.The social environment was one that favoured the white people’s value and discriminated against the Indians. The Indian’s lived away from the whites in little reservations allowing the Indians to have little or no contact with the white people. This had already proved the racial treatment within Montana. Furthermore Ollie Young Bear was an Indian but he was accepted from the whites because he lived as white. He was successful through every aspects of life and married a white woman. But the Indians, on the other hand had regard believing that Ollie young bear wouldn’t â€Å"be happy until he was white. The white societies within Montana were all well aware of the crimes committed by Frank against the Indians. When Wesley and Gail were to take action on the claims made by Marie about Frank’s wrongdoings, Dav id heard a remark made by Daisy McAuley saying â€Å"Just the squaws though. † Daisy comment showed a racial statement about Indian women. It appeared that Daisy was justifying against Franks actions, because in her eyes Indian women were worthless and deserved the way they were being treated.After the conversation between Gail and Daisy, Gail informed Wesley that it was â€Å"around town more than you realize. † Gail’s statement proved that a lot of the citizens within Montana knew of Franks activities but choose to â€Å"look away† just like Len, Deputy Sheriff chose to do. It was the racial treatment of the white people that overlooked Frank’s actions which led them responsible for what occurred within the summer of 1948. Julian Hayden is the head of the family and holds great power within his family and the community.Therefore Wes has a boundless deal of obedience and loyalty towards him. When Gail informs Wes of Frank’s actions, Wesâ₠¬â„¢ first response was â€Å"I don’t want this getting back to my father. † This showed how important it was to Wes, that his father doesn’t not get upset. However, it turned out Julian already was well aware of his favourite son’s wrongdoing but took it as a joke by stating â€Å"I wouldn’t be surprised if there weren’t some young ones out on the reservation who look a lot like your brother. Julian chose to side with Frank, as he thought very little of the Indians as he considered them to have lower status compared to the whites. Julian challenged Wes’ arrest of his brother by saying â€Å"Some Indian thinks he put his hands where he shouldn’t and you’re pulling out your badge? † Furthermore Frank also holds some responsibility to what happened in Montana. He abused his power as a doctor which led him to murder Marie Little Soldier and eventually commit suicide.Frank’s status in the community was that he was a genuine war hero and a doctor but sadly, he misused his status by molesting Indian girls and in some cases raping innocent women during private medical sessions. Frank was smart, because he knew no one would comfort him for his action because of the reputation of his family name and by the fact he had power. When he went to examine Marie at Wesley’s house, he made an assumption about Indian and how â€Å"they are used to being treated by the medicine man. But a doctor comes around and they think he’s the evil spirit. Throughout the novel, Wes makes a deal with Frank for him to stop what his doing and he wouldn’t press charges, but when Frank murdered Marie just to ‘get rid’ of his past and all the evidence, Wes doesn’t hesitate to arrest his brother. Thus, Julian and Frank hold a countless obligation to the events that occurred within the summer of 1948. Finally, the keepers of the law, Sheriff Wesley Hayden and his deputy Len McAuley must hold responsibility for what events went wrong during the summer on 1948. As sheriff, Wes had a duty to ensure the law was being upheld equally for both races.He failed to do this for a long time, first by denying his brother’s offences â€Å"I’m sure he does things to all his patients† and later by denying his arrest, â€Å"he’ll have to meet punishment in the hereafter. I won’t do anything to arrange it in this life. † Due to his lack of responsibility it led to the heartbreaking death of Marie and David’s entry fee of having to see his Uncle Frank at their house on the day of her death, this impacted Wesley to act upon his brother Frank. As a result of Wes arresting Frank, it causes further complications within the family.Julian responded by trying to free Frank by using violence and then Frank taking his life. Wesley finally realized that postponing justice from an earlier stage of the events had himself in some contribution to the tragic deaths of Marie and Frank. It was Wes himself, who failed to uphold the law, had failed Marie and all the Indian women; therefore he must be blamed for the tragedy, not Montana itself. However, Len failed to uphold his role as Deputy Sheriff, which acted upon his role in the tragedy.He obligated the Hayden’s, it was them that gave him his position as deputy â€Å"I have this job. Deputy Sheriff, which I owe to your granddad and your dad†, therefore he believed in â€Å"knowing when to look and when to look away. † Therefore, Len was both powerless and unwilling to challenge Wes’s inactions. Together, both these representatives of the law hold a responsibility to the events which occurred within Montana 1948. Montana 1948 clearly states that the events that occurred within the summer could not be blamed on the state itself.The Hayden was part of a culture that distinguished against the Indian people and overlooked crimes against these people . Due to the racism treatment the Indians coped from the white people it led Frank to get away with his corruptions. It seemed that the power, wealth and influence the Hayden had within the community was much more important than the rights of the Indians to receive justice and respect. Julian and Frank also take part of the blame due to them taking benefit of the power they had.In delaying justice for so long in order to protect his family, Wesley found himself denying justice towards the Indians and having obligation in the deaths of Marie and Frank. Wesley obviously admits that Montana shouldn’t be blamed for the events the occurred within the summer of 1948, when he attacks his daughter-in-law by defending a topic that meant a lot to him. He indicates that the white citizens that lived in Montana at the time, his family and he himself were the ones who were to blame for the tragic events that occurred within Montana 1948.